Literature+Review,+Revised+Nov+22,+2011



**__LITERATURE REVIEW__** As countries in the Western World have increasingly moved toward a specialized economy, students have had to invest themselves in years of education and take on a significant debt burden in order to enter the job market. The Student Debt Project reports that student borrowing hit an all time high of $25,250 during 2010 (Abramson, 2011). In part because of these pressures, many students feel an intense urgency to make a firm decision regarding career. Unfortunately, many students enter college with little idea of their goals, or the tools necessary to succeed in the ever changing job market (Wood & Kaszubowski, 2008). The American School Counselor Association recognizes this trend, and advocates for schools to adopt career education curriculum that spans from Kindergarten to graduation in order to effectively prepare students for career decision making (ASCA, 2004; Blackhurst & Auger, 2008). This literature review will consider the current trends in career development for elementary school students within the United States, by addressing the needs, goals and some specific approaches that may successfully involve students in the career process.

Many adults may balk at the idea of 6 and 7 year olds receiving information about career opportunities at such a young age. However, careful consideration of the rationale behind career development education in elementary schools helps to clarify the importance for providing this service even at a young age. First, theorists like Super emphasize the fact that career development takes place over a lifetime (Brown, 2012). Certainly, children should not make decisions about their future careers, but instead, “begin to gather information about careers and to acquire the skills and competencies that will one day support success in the workplace” (Harkins, 2001, p. 170). In previous generations, for example, children would work with their families to sow and harvest crops (Harkins, 2001). These activities taught basic principles to children who would one day continue on in this employment. Now, however, few families remain on farms, and the field of careers is far wider. Cultivating the basic building blocks of responsibility, persistence, planfulness, self-motivation, respect and focus allow children to establish a firm foundation on which future aspirations can take shape (Patterson, 2005; Magnuson & Starr, 2000; Gallavan, 2003, Herr & Niles, 2003).
 * __Rationale: the Importance of Early Intervention__**

Further, children already receive many, often inaccurate, messages about the workplace (Harkins, 2001; Wood & Kaszubowski, 2008). Television offers faulty, often stereotyped depictions of employment; these messages shape children at an early age and can ultimately lead them to circumscribe their options based on what they have seen (Harkins, 2001; Wood & Kaszubowski, 2008; Magnuson & Starr, 2000). Likewise, children may lack the necessary understanding of the investment of work and education necessary to achieve their goals. If researchers are correct in their assertion that children make decisions about themselves and the world at a young age, educators and counselors need to address these issues early on in the education process so that students can make wise choices (Magnuson & Starr, 2000). Finally, with all of the advancements and changes in the current job market, children cannot possibly receive exposure to the vast array of careers that currently exist (Harkins, 2001). Career counselors need to fill in the gaps with opportunities for children to explore the realm of possibilities. In short, career education among elementary school students must begin early because the skills necessary to succeed do not develop quickly, and the messages that children receive from other sources may negatively impact the career journey. The earlier those children begin to develop a framework for employment, the more time that this concept will be given the opportunity to mature in the child’s mind (Harkins, 2001). This time for rumination will offer the child a better chance of successfully navigating this aspect of life.

Because of the many factors that influence children, several inter-related goals emerge as imperative aspects of elementary school career education. First, Brown (2012) and Harkins (2001) note that children need to develop an awareness of the diversity of occupations. Harkins (2001) adds that children must also become aware of themselves. This process will include understanding parents’ and or primary caregivers’ employment as a starting point, and then learning about the careers of other influential adults in the child’s life (Brown, 2012; Herr & Niles, 2003).
 * __Goals: Building and Breaking__**

Similarly, breaking stereotypes plays a significant role in career education for children (Brown, 2012; Harkins, 2001). Seminars must offer children a broad range of concrete opportunities that, hopefully, will offer a more accurate perspective of the requirements and functions of certain jobs as well as potential educational requirements needed for entry into those careers. This more realistic representation of career paths presented by these seminars should ideally offset the inaccurate career representations that are presented on television or other outlets that children are exposed to on a daily basis. As Gottfredson notes, sex-typed stereotypes regarding careers take shape from 6 to 8 years of age; perspectives about the social class of jobs forms from 9 to 13 years of age (Brown, 2012). These factors influence children to reject or pursue certain career paths (Blackhurst & Auger, 2005). Once an individual circumscribes an alternative, he or she will not revisit it unless some type of intervention occurs (Brown, 2012). Therefore, this element of career education plays an especially significant role, and reinforces the importance of addressing career development at a young age. By breaking stereotypes early in the education process, career counselors can take a proactive stance in shepherding children past some of the barriers posed by societal norms towards a career that they can find fulfilling.

Along with breaking stereotypes, educators can build up children’s self-esteem so that they will have the emotional resources necessary to consider jobs that they might otherwise perceive as out of their reach. McIntosh notes that this quality, in part, can take root in a child’s life as they acquire skills in self-expression, and gain competence (2000). Although broader than McIntosh’s (2000) category, Harkins (2001) alludes to this goal when she indicates that school counselors should seek to encourage children to develop “positive attitude and habits” (2001, p. 171). As children build self-esteem by learning core competencies, some of the linkages between education and work can be reinforced. Educators and counselors can stress that the skills that children are learning in school will directly relate to the workplace, and, thus, achieve another goal of career education in the elementary school (Brown, 2012)

According to Harkins (2001), career counseling at the elementary school level should center on building children’s abilities in teamwork, communication and computer skills. McIntosh (2000) echoes Harkins’ (2001) emphasis on group cooperation, and adds that career education should enable the student to “set personal goals, make personal choices and decisions, accept responsibility for the consequences of personal decision, come to grips with peer pressure and develop and prize one’s own standards” (p. 623).

In summary, two primary concepts, building and breaking, encapsulate the goals of career education for elementary school children. School counselors must build up the competencies, abilities and self-understanding of children, while at the same time breaking misconceptions, and stereotypes. These two principles should guide any career development work at this age.

Many researchers note effective ways to implement these goals, by offering different approaches to career development in elementary schools. Primarily, career development activities must be fun and interactive. Harkins notes that “the principle that children draw on active experience to create meaning about the world should be reflected in career education…” (2001, p. 170). Fostering a fun atmosphere can involve stimulating creativity. Magnuson suggests encouraging curiosity in children by providing a space for children to wander and explore, which could be accomplished by providing hats, magnifying glasses or building blocks that the children can use to explore and introduce themselves to different types of employment (2000). This dramatic play can not only expose children to new opportunities, but aid in the process of breaking gender based stereotypes (Harkins, 2001). Fieldtrips to different workplaces can also open students’ minds to other opportunities (Paterson, 2005).
 * __Implementation Techniques__**

Further, Harkins (2001) and Magnuson & Starr (2000) advocate that interventions begin at the level of understanding of a child and move toward unfamiliar topics. School counselors can reach this goal by starting with the roles that significant adults in the children’s lives fill. If students cannot travel to see workplaces in person, work site simulations offer an excellent avenue for exploration (Harkins, 2001).

Education literature identifies other ways to engage students in dynamic, fun learning activities. By utilizing learning stations, “a centre [sic] where students have activities to gain mandatory or voluntary skills…to try to reach objectives through predetermined activities based on their levels,” children can explore at their own pace, and investigate a wide range of activities that they might not have considered otherwise (Ocak, 2010, p. 147). Learning stations achieves many of the goals for career education, like fostering self-confidence and developing goals (Ocak, 2010, p. 147). These activities can include elements that involve multiple intelligences, a term coined by Howard Gardner to explain differences in learning styles (Gouws, 2007). Some activities may include kinesthetic activities like acting, while others may involve drawing pictures or maps. Montessori education utilizes this learning station approach and often involves activities tailored to other learning styles, all in the attempt to invigorate children with a “flaming imagination” that will aid their learning process (McKenzie, 1995, p. 38). School counselors can certainly utilize these techniques and model to effectively engage elementary school aged students in thinking about careers.

In summary, the elementary school years offer an invaluable window of opportunity for educators to provide students with career related information. School counselors can utilize this formative time in a child’s life to break career stereotypes and provide students with accurate information that can influence a child’s career journey over a lifetime. To gain the best outcomes, educators should use fun, inventive approaches that begin with topics familiar to students. From this foundation, educators can expose students to a variety of careers that will, hopefully, lead to a fulfilling career path.
 * __Conclusion__**

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